Afin de faciliter la recherche, les résumés des communications ont été regroupés par thèmes:

• Marketing et consommations culturelles
• Stratégie
• Contrôle de gestion
• Gestion des ressources humaines
• Politiques culturelles
    
   

MARKETING ET CONSOMMATIONS CULTURELLES

Essai de modélisation du comportement dans le domaine culturel. Une application au spectacle théâtral
Dominique Bourgeon

Le secteur des activités culturelles est traditionnellement caractérisé par la primauté de la création sur la demande. Pourtant ce secteur n'échappe pas aux contraintes économiques. Certaines activités culturelles ont déjà massivement adopté la démarche marketing au moins au niveau de l'aval de la création (cinéma). En revanche, le secteur théâtral reste relativement "traditionnel", alors qu'il est confronté à un besoin d'extension de sa base de public. Dans la perspective d'une meilleure action des institutions théâtrales auprès de leur public et de la recherche de l'élargissement de ce public, il est nécessaire de mieux comprendre les mobiles du comportement. Deux orientations théoriques sont offertes pour tenter d'expliquer les comportements dans le domaine théâtral. La recherche propose un modèle de comportement culturel fondé sur la perspective de recherche d'expériences qui peut permettre la convergence des différents cadres théoriques.

La relation au cinéma: une comparaison salle/télévision
Yves Evrard, Philippe Aurier

La relation de complémentarité (la télévision est un autre mode de diffusion des films) ou de concurrence (la télévision vide les salles) qui existe entre salle de cinéma et télévision fait l'objet de nombreux débats dans les professions de l'audiovisuel.
L'objet de cette communication est, après avoir rappelé les principaux enjeux de ce débat, de présenter les résultats d'une recherche sur le vécu de l'expérience cinématographique et sur les comportements déclarés selon que la réception a lieu en salle ou au domicile.Cette comparaison porte sur différentes composantes de la "relation au cinéma", identifiées dans des recherches précédentes, telles que: le niveau d'implication; les aspects affectifs de l'expérience de consommation (valeur hédonique, stimulation; les dimensions symboliques et sociales de la consommation (effet de signe, sociabilité);les activités cognitives associées à la consommation (recherche d'informations, expertise subjective); l'évaluation globale de la consommation (satisfaction).
L'analyse des comportements porte sur la fréquence de consommation ainsi que sur les modalités sociales de cette fréquentation (sociabilité de la pratique). Les résultats, fondés sur une enquête auprès de 200 étudiants, convergent pour soutenir l'hypothèse de deux processus distincts de consommation, et non d'un processus identique situé sur des lieux alternatifs.

L'organisation des activités de loisir des ménages: une étude du marché Montréalais
Joanne Labrecque, Maurice Piché, François Colbert

Résumé non disponible.

Marketing Research Into Theatre Audiences in Russia
Alexander Rubinstein

Au sortir d'une période de turbulences qui aura duré près de vingt ans, les pays industrialisés constatent aujourd'hui l'ampleur et l'étendue des transformations subies. Des industries, hier florissantes, ont disparu ou ont été remplacées par d'autres, causant des réajustements structurels souvent douloureux. Les progrès technologiques et informatiques ont modifié les anciennes façons de faire et amené les entreprises à repenser leurs processus de production. De même, la venue de nouveaux concurrents sur les marchés traditionnels a été l'occasion d'une prise de conscience de la fragilité des acquis. Dans tous les secteurs, les dirigeants doivent désormais "piloter dans la tempête" [Courville, 1994] ce qui nécessite plus de flexibilité, plus de productivité et surtout, plus de créativité dans la manière d'allouer et de gérer les ressources rares de la société.
Dans les organisations, ces changements se sont traduits par une quasi-obsession pour l'efficacité et pour l'efficience, devenus les mots d'ordre des gestionnaires de tous les échelons. De plus en plus convaincus que le rendement est le meilleur garant de la survie de leurs organisations, les dirigeants ont mis en place maintes mesures pour éliminer le gaspillage, rationaliser les processus, gérer les risques, améliorer la productivité des machines comme des individus et mieux contrôler l'utilisation de toutes les ressources à tous les niveaux. 

The Peculiarities of Audience Management and Public Support of Theatre Companies in Contemporary Russia
Elena Levshina

Résumé non disponible.
 
Trends in Theatre Attendance in Britain
Michael Quine

It has long been the case that in Britain there has been no overall knowledge of the levels of theatre attendance, the value of ticket revenues, the types of work which attract audiences, possible regional variations, and trends over time.
In 1981 the then Society of West End Theatre recognised the need for comprehensive knowledge of its own sector and started a data collection and analysis programme. Nine years later, in 1990, a similar but more refined regional programme was started, also run in this Department. It is run independently, setting out to find and analyse results and trends amongst theatres and theatre companies elsewhere in the country. There is now a full five-year (and growing) run of data for attendances outside London and it is possible and appropriate to look for patterns which are of realistic value and use to the theatre sector as a whole, to cultural politicians, to those who fund the theatre as arts-funding agencies, and to theatre managements themselves.
This paper seeks to describe, briefly, the background to this ongoing research, then to identify what appear to be the significant changes, and finally to discuss some of the implications that they may have. 

Cultural Tourists and Cultural Tourism
Robert F. Kelly

Résumé non disponible.
 
Ahead of the Game
Vanessa Bone

This paper will examine the perceived threats to cultural specialisms posed by the growing trend towards creating leisure strategies and the implications for: the leisure provider, whether in the public, voluntary or private sectors; the leisure consumer, whether at home or in purpose-built facilities.
Although there is an apparent challenge to professional expertise and discrete spheres of influence throughout the Arts and Media, Ahead of the Game will argue that closer collaboration between leisure sectors can be a productive and enriching experience. Some examples of good practice from the public and voluntary sectors in the UK will be cited to demonstrate the benefits of joint working.
The paper will conclude with proposals for approaches to leisure anning and delivery, which protect specialist knowledge and skills and turn restrictive practices into stimulating cross-fertilisation. If Arts Managers look upon culture as part of a continuum of activities which contribute to the quality of life of both individuals and society, they might recognise that the position of the arts in the UK could be strengthened and valued more highly as a result of collaboration across sectors.

Parental Attitude Towards the Arts, Arts Education, and Children's Exposure to the Arts
Brenda Gainer

This paper examines parental attitudes towards the arts, arts education and exposure to the arts for children. A qualitative methodology was used to explore the meaning of the arts, as well as attitudes towards child development and the goal of educational activities. Three themes emerged from the data that are explored in this study: the arts and gender, the arts and "getting ahead" in the workplace, and the arts and social status. The implications of these findings for arts managers are discussed, particularly with regard to repositioning the arts to parents and adopting a segmentation scheme based on attitudinal differences.

Analysing Art Markets - Towards an Integrated Framework
Annukka Jyrama, Liisa Uusitalo

The characteristics of the art market, the intangible value of products created by participants' interaction, emphasis on information and knowledge, or the key role of relationships, have recently been topics of interest for research in many economic fields. These topics are "new" for economic research, but seem to hold traditionally a key position within the analysis of art markets. These key aspects of art markets might, however, remain uncaptured, if only traditional economic tools of analysis are used. The aim of this paper is to present an integrated framework for analysing the structure and strategies within art markets. The framework includes elements from the following theories: dual industry theory, strategic group theory, institutional approach on strategy and reference point theory. To summarise, we can state that dual industry theory contributes to capture the market as consisting of a core and a periphery. The strategic group theory helps to recognise the hierarchy of the market. Its main contribution relies on the idea of industry-specific or group-specific mobility barriers. These barriers are the specific competences needed to enter the art field, and moreover to enter the elite or core of the field. The institutional approach reveals the importance of studying the proper manners or strategies used to become successful in the art markets. The contribution of reference point theory is related to the influence of elite or powerful individuals as creating these proper manners. It is proposed that, by combining elements from these approaches, we can achieve a better framework to analyse art markets or other similar markets.

The Actions of Contemporary Visual Arts: A Study of the Determinants and of the Course of Prices
Elisabetta Lazzaro

The present paper is an econometric analysis of the monetary acknowledgment of a sample of contemporary painters by the international auction market during the postwar period. The sample includes the transactions of paintings, water-colors and drawings of a group of artists, from their very first auctions up to now. Each painter is qualitatively diversified, but he belongs to the same generation, for everyone started being active in the same period.
Through a cross-sectional regression, we have tried to determine objective co-factors in the variation of value of a contemporary visual artist, despite the presence of temporary fashions and given the fact that his production is not given.
The results have mostly confirmed the original hypothesis: The type of media employed, the date of a single transaction, previous important exhibitions and ownership, as well as the size of the work do positively affect the price of a contemporary work of art.

 

   STRATÉGIE

Les jeux video: Transition ou mutation?
Nicole Arnal

Depuis l'apparition des premiers jeux vidéo, il y a une trentaine d'années, le marché est fortement cyclique, les années de croissance étant régulièrement suivies de période de déclin.Actuellement, plusieurs facteurs se combinent pour annoncer des transformations profondes dans ce secteur. D'une part, le marché dédié est arrivé à saturation et, malgré l'introduction d'une nouvelle génération de consoles, il marque des signes d'essoufflement. D'autre part, de nouveaux modes de développement risquent à terme de le concurrencer : La croissance de la micro-informatique grand public est rapide, accompagnée par l'explosion du parc de lecteurs de CD-ROM permettant un usage multimédia des jeux vidéo. Les services en ligne, dans le contexte des autoroutes de l'information ou sur d'autres réseaux, offrent des jeux multi-utilisateurs et du téléchargement. Enfin, la déformation des usages, qui opère certes lentement mais de façon tangible chez les jeunes générations, pourrait accélérer la transition, voire la mutation, du secteur vers une nouvelle dynamique économique.

Du Festival International du Film de Cannes au marché du film
Pierre-Jean Benghozi, Claire Nénert

Depuis ses débuts, le Festival International du Film de Cannes est tout à la fois foyer potentiel de découverte artistique, point d'une focalisation médiatique sans pareille, enjeu symbolique et politique pour les participants et les organisateurs, lieu de rencontre pour les acteurs du marché. En tant que tel, il représente donc le lieu unique où peut s'établir dans le même temps la valeur artistique et la valeur économique des oeuvres. Il s'agit là d'une caractéristique de plus en plus forte des événements et des institutions culturelles. L'objet de la communication est de situer cette double fonction à partir d'une étude monographique effectuée sur le festival de Cannes.

Towards a New Relationship Between Artists, Curators and Audience
Eric Moody

There is a traditional relationship in the visual arts in which the artist speculatively produces art, curators select artists and the art gallery shows the work of those selected artists to a notional audience. Although a secure and easily managed power-base for the curator and a highly effective promotional vehicle for chosen artists, this now universal model is demonstrably ineffectual as a way of achieving the usually espoused rationale for public subsidy, developing the visual arts.
The growth of international joint venture exhibitions of contemporary art exasperates local problems of cultural alienation and a poor visual arts economy by helping to create and sustain an international curator culture; a heavily selected and resourced culture which is as detached from local culture and as damaging to local economies as are other internationally marketed consumer goods.
Although a primary cause of cultural and economic damage, art galleries can play a key role in invigorating the visual arts provided a new model of institutional practice is developed. Three models are examined:
1. Eco-museums;
2. Community Arts;
3. Small Business Practice (commercial galleries and artists working to commission).
A new form of curatorship is proposed and new priorities for cultural management suggested. What makes this paper original is the application of ecological arguments to the management of visual culture. It also challenges the findings of conventional impact studies.

Co-operation or Isolation? Toward a New Organisational Structure for Italian Museums
Silvia Bagdadli

The challenge that faces the Italian museums is an improvement in the level of service and in the quality of the relationship with the public, while at the same time increasing efficiency.
In this paper it has been suggested that an attainment of those results is possible through the establishment of inter-organisational systems. Museum networks permit an increase in the quality of the enterprises as well as in a greater supply of services. They enable organisations to offer these services at lower costs, to rationalise the operating costs and to increase the value of the cultural heritage. Other countries have already moved in that direction; this outlook seems to be particularly interesting in Italy due to the fact that there are more than three thousand museums.

Collaboration and Partnerships - Forging Viability for Nonprofit Arts Organisations
Joanne Scheff

In recent years, arts attendance has leveled off, corporate and government funding of the arts have been drastically cut, and arts organizations face spiraling expenses. Therefore, arts organizations must seek new and effective means to (1) build new audiences, (2) increase funding, and (3) cut costs. To accomplish these tasks, many arts organizations are finding that they can collaborate with one another and with businesses and other institutions in their community to the mutual benefit of all involved.
Arts organizations which have traditionally considered one another competitors are finding that a collaborative approach works to their mutual benefit. One institution may be a 'cultural gateway' for people to become involved in the larger cultural community. Collaborative efforts such as exchanging mailing lists, joint box offices, joint promotions and advertising, and cultural credit cards have a synergistic effect that actually increases interest and attendance at the participating organizations. Arts organizations can cut costs and even improve the efficiency of their operations through collaborative efforts. Some organizations join forces to share office space and rehearsal space. Some do joint advertising to increase their bargaining power with the media to reduce prices and to gain more coverage for the arts.
Corporations which have traditionally contributed to arts organizations from their philanthropic budgets now frequently seek to meet their marketing and public relations goals with their contributions. One of the best illustrations of this practice is the partnership between the Detroit Symphony Orchestra and the EDS Corporation, in which EDS is donating complete database management, hardware, and software for ten years at an estimated value to the symphony of 2 million dollars.
Many other examples of mutually beneficial partnerships exist with churches, local sports teams, school districts, restaurants and other businesses. Some collaborations are for the purpose of targeting specific new audience segments; some are for increasing frequency and satisfaction among current attenders; some are for improving the quality of the product itself, the location in which it is presented, and other factors related to the audience member's total experience when attending a performance or exhibit.
Whether a strategic collaboration is initiated by an arts organization or by a potential partner, there are several factors that should be kept in mind to assure that the collaboration is successful. First, the organization should decide on its key objectives and identify which specific potential partners would help meet those needs. It is important to determine what opportunities the arts organization can offer to potential collaborators to help meet their goals. A strategic collaboration must be mutually beneficial and not just fill in the gaps in one organization's existing program. Second, leadership must be defined; organizations must get to know and understand one another. Each collaboration must be an equal partnership and a joint effort. Often, this is the most difficult challenge for nonprofits (quality maximizers) and business organizations (profit maximizers) working together, as their basic goals are so different. Conflicts should be anticipated and trust maintained. Third, collaborations require an enormous amount of time and resource commitment from all involved parties. Each partner must learn from the other's strengths, flexibility must be maintained, and cultural differences must be accepted.

The Lower East Side Tenement Museum: A New Way for Heritage to Survive?
Anthea Raymond

Howard Gardner's new book Leading Minds argues that leadership is based, ultimately, on persuasive storytelling. Whoever tells the best story, captures most vividly the imagination, will best be able to bring people together toward a common goal. This notion can be traced to early eighties works like Peters and Waterman's In Search of Excellence . These authors too highlighted the power of story, of corporate mythology and legend, to bind people across interests and link them to a common goal. A decade and a half later, Gardner looks again at this organisational glue, but this time turns to its source -- the leader, the storyteller.
This paper goes two steps further: it suggests that organisations function as storytellers; they use stories to create and affect external relationships. More importantly, it posits an inverse: organisations are also "storysavers," foci and repositories for meaning generated and preserved in a collaborative act with audience. This too requires an external focus, on what organisations say and on what audiences project back. Examples from the cultural field are considered, including the Smithsonian Institution, America's federally-funded agglomeration of cultural institutions, Philadelphia's Barnes Collection, the On-Line Vietnam Veterans Memorial, and the Lower East Side Tenement Museum, a small, private, nonprofit in New York City.
This paper has deep relevance to cultural managers and policy makers today as they seek to tell new stories, to build community around those stories, and to identify new organisational models for doing so. To remain vital in the digital age, organisations must rethink notions of organisation and organisational design. This is especially true for those dedicated to preserving and expanding our discourse about cultural heritage. It is my hope that this paper will contribute to such a rethinking.

La direction d'organismes artistiques: Le point de vue du Conseil d'Administration
et du dirigeant
Pierre-François Ouellette, Laurent Lapierre

Ce texte propose une réflexion sur les conseils d'administration d'entreprises artistiques. Dans un premier temps on fera état des recherches et des écrits publiés par des spécialistes sur la question (Ouellette et Lapierre, 1995a et 1995b). Dans un deuxième temps nous feront ressortir quelques constatations qui découlent d'une expérience pratique de dirigeant et d'administrateur d'entreprises artistiques et d'une recherche clinique auprès de dirigeants d'entreprises artistiques (Lapierre, 1994).
This paper offers thoughts on the boards of trustees of artistic organizations. First, the state of the research and articles published by specialists on the subject will be presented (Ouellette and Lapierre, 1995a and 1995b). Secondly, we will highlight some reflections that have come out of pratical experience as an executive and as a trustee of cultural organizations as well as from clinical research undertaken on executive directors of cultural organizations. "Choreographing dance, making music, producing plays or mounting exhibitions are simple tasks compared with developing a fundraising and leadership board" George Thorn, 1990.

Managing a Theatre Production: A Processual Competence Perspective
Arja Ropo, Marja Eriksson, Erika Vapaavuori

Résumé: L'objectif de cette étude est d'étudier le processus de préparation d'une pièce de théâtre pendant la période de préparation. La pièce devrait satisfaire aux exigeces aussi bien artistiques qu'économiques, mais le succès n'est pas seulement un compromis mécanique entre les participants principaux et leurs objectifs. Cette étude d'un cas specifique implique le plus notamment l'importance de l'interaction entre les participants principaux. Les trois éléments d'interaction, qui devraient être specifiquement soulignés sont: la communication, le conflit et l'engagement.

Can Current Popular Management Concepts Help Dance Companies in the UK?
Lawrie Reavill

Dans le gestion des troupes de dance en Grand Bretagne, les concepts de la gestion du commerce sont plus en plus considerer et necessaire. Par exemple, les concepts du marketing, le declaration d'un mission, l'analyse depositaire, qualite et son gestion. On peut dire que ces criteres simples d'efficacite et de bonne fonctionnement sont les plus utiles, mais il faut avoir des objectives qui sont clairmont declares, ou bien evident. Aujourd'hui dans le climat economique qui exist, l'objectif primaire des troupes de dances est plutot la survie. Dans ce context, on peut voir des resemblances avec les produits manufactures, et leurs besoin d'avoir, en existance, une bonne gamme des produits ainsi qu'un plan de reserche et development pour des nouveaux produits. Donc, en conclusion, quand on considere les concepts de gestion variees, et le besoin de finance pour les troupes de dances, le concept de plus importance doit etre le satisfaction du client.

L'émergence du métier dans de jeunes maisons d'édition: Constitution du capital de compétences et processus d'apprentissage
Jean-Christophe Roméle

Par le biais de l'étude de l'histoire et des principaux processus de développement de trois maisons d'édition indépendantes - dont deux créées respectivement en 1978: ACTES SUD et en 1977: ATLANTIS, ont su développer un métier d'éditeur professionnel dans le domaine de l'édition littéraire ; une autre créée en 1981: ÉRÈS, est à la recherche d'une certaine professionnalisation dans le domaine des sciences humaines - la présente communication s'attache à montrer que le métier de l'éditeur - qui sera défini - s'acquiert : en constituant un capital de compétences technico-économiques (en matière d'éditorial, de fabrication, de diffusion, de contrôle des coûts et de financement) ; en le structurant par l'élaboration de stratégies qui se mettent en place dans l'action ; en l'activant et en l'exploitant par une organisation et un management émergeant dans le cadre d'une identité et d'un projet éditorial qui s'affirme.
Le capital de compétences a émergé grâce à l'action de processus d'apprentissage et de construction d'identité: apprentissages à tous les niveaux de la pratique éditoriale selon une succession de phases de développement puis d'exploitation de potentiel, et par un travail permanent d'interprétation (rendre signifiants des phénomènes émergents) ; établissement de l'identité de médiateur opérant dans le champ culturel par accumulation de ressources et de pouvoir culturel (le catalogue et la médiatisation des livres) et de l'identité socio-économique par accroissement de l'espace stratégique de l'organisation au sein de la filière de l'édition.

Les effets réciproques des innovations technologiques sur la création artistique et sur sa diffusion
Alain Keravel, Olivier Silhol

Les nouvelles technologies ont et auront des effets à la fois sur le processus de création artistique et sur les moyens de diffusion de ces oeuvres, ces effets semblent être réciproques. L'interrogation sur la nature de l'oeuvre d'art constamment présente tout au long du XXème siècle est curieusement très proche des discussions actuelles sur les nouvelles perspectives offertes par le multimédia, de façon réciproque la montée en puissance des industries culturelles, les choix économiques dans lesquels elles s'engagent, implique un effort de pensée que seuls les artistes peuvent accomplir.

The Life Cycle of Arts Centre Concepts and Programmes Calling for Permanent Innovation
Willy Faché

Arts centres, cultural centres, socio-cultural centres, crea-tivity centres and cultural communication centres are similar institutes which grew up in the sixties in almost all develo-ped countries all over the world. The development of arts centres began with multi-purpose buil-dings and has continued to be largely based on buildings. But if we look at the philosophy and the aims of the current centres, than we observe that the heart of the matter is that arts centres justify their name not only by bringing a variety of cultural activities under one roof but also by introducing a new concept of cultural programming. Programming here defi-ned as an intervention designed to facilitate the occurrence of cultural (leisure) experiences. The concept of arts centres and their programs is going through a cycle of evolution similar to the product life cycle.

Marketing the Tate Gallery Towards 2000: Consequences of Bankside
Derrick Chong

This essay considers various issues related to the decision by the trustees of the Tate Gallery to develop the national collection of British and Modern art, under its remit, on separate London sites -- the original Millbank one and a new one at Bankside set to open in 2000 -- while keeping them part of the same institution with one director and one board of trustees. The proposed conversion of the disused Bankside Power Station serves several purposes: as a major millennial project it addresses urban, architectural, and spatial issues which will shape the presentation of art and culture into the next century; the Tate Gallery of Modern Art (TGMA) answers the call for London to have a museum of modern art on a par with other international capital cities, namely New York and Paris; furthermore, so as not to give the impression of neglect to the Millbank building its galleries are being refurbished, and to mark the centenary, in 1997, it will be refashioned as the Tate Gallery of British Art (TGBA).

Arts Management: Art or Management? The Case of Riverdance
Barra O'Cinneide

This paper aims to explore the contributions made to Arts Management by creative/artistic factors (which the current author, for convenience, refers to as "Art") and, separately, by Entrepreneurship. In particular, it looks at the development of Riverdance -- a brief music/dance sequence specially commissioned by RTE, the Irish Broadcasting Authority, for the "Eurovision Song Contest" held in Dublin, Ireland in 1994. It attempts to relate this event to the outcome of other performing art items similarly commissioned for mega TV broadcasted events, such as "Italia 90" World Cup Finals and the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, Spain. An additional goal has been an attempt to analyse the factors that played a role in the evolution of Riverdance, drawing analogies with the new product development process described in management literature. Finally, it deals with the moral dilemma faced by the arts/culture sector in walking the figurative "tight-rope", whereby the maximum commercial success sought for new "products" must not be at the expense of artistic values, which can be demeaned by mass market over-exploitation.

Utilising Case Analysis for the Improvement of the Management and Content of a Cultural Event
Jane B. Roberts

This paper will demonstrate how to use case analysis to critique a cultural event. A case is a chronological accounting of occurrences. When a case studies framework is applied for analysis, it becomes a process for improving the administration of a cultural event, especially in the area of decision making. It is also a very thorough evaluation process, and therefore, of value to the literature of arts management. However, experience has shown that not many individuals in the arts, or for that matter in arts administration, have been taught to use this type of analysis on the events they administer.

Temporal Setting and its Structural Rôle in Music Programming
Isabel Gaio

The purpose of this paper is to focus on the music programme of the Barbican Concert Hall during the season of 1991/92 and to analyse its structure from the perspective of a temporal setting of the concerts. Temporal setting is for our purposes defined as a subjective element of scheduling, one of the programme planning tasks by means of which particular times are made to correspond to particular types of repertoire. Types of repertoire are broadly divided according to their audience appeal, that is between the categories of (a) Repertoire concerts, which require a more connoisseur type of public; and (b) Popular concerts, 'easier' music where the listener does not seek to be challenged. The Repertoire area covers orchestral repertoire, characterised by the inclusion in the programme of standard repertoire works with an average of 3 to 4 pieces per programme including traditionally a concerto and a symphony or an equivalent; chamber music and recitals; and choral symphonic programmes. Popular concerts encompass what we call "classical pops", mainly characterised by a bigger diversity and sometimes a more spectacular display, including an average of 6 to 8 or more different pieces per concert programme, featuring more accessible and frequently-played classical music such as Viennese waltzes or famous operatic excerpts; concerts dedicated to "bring" children to classical music as they always include the more popular pieces; and light music where pop or 'other' music is performed or the form of presentation is not the conventional one. The sources for this research were the Barbican Programmes.

In Search of Strategy: Some Reflections on a Case Study at the Royal Opera in Stockholm
Jeannette Wetterstrom

This paper is not intended as a presentation of conclusions. Instead the aim is to gather some reflections on the search of what strategic management is all about in a performing art organisation. I prefer a reflective starting point for two reasons. First, even if my perspective is strategic management, I will show that the often complex relations of artistic production can be brought into the analyses. Maybe we otherwise are inclined to put less emphasis on conventions behind decisions and actions? However, the second reason is that a qualitative approach is valuable to explore a complex performing art organisation. Accordingly, I attempt to explore the practice of strategic management at the Royal Opera in relation to the specific context. This will be done in a broad sense as the study is still going on.
 

   CONTRÔLE DE GESTION
 
Les modes de contrôle des organisations artistiques
Eve Chiapello

Résumé non disponible.
 
The Performance Evaluation of Audio-Visual Production in a Non-Profit Environment
Marc Verlinden, Koen Vandenbempt

Résumé: La recherche présente une méthode générale pour évaluer et mesurer la performance d'une organisation dans l'absence d'un but lucratif et applique cette méthodologie à la production audio-visuelle. La méthodologie inclue (1) l'identification des fonctions clefs et des objectifs et des entités d'analyse, (2) le développement des mesures et des critères pour évaluer les opérations, et (3) la construction d'un cadre d'analyse intégré à base des systèmes de gestion en place, permettant une évaluation permanente.
Bien que la méthodologie aie été développée pour évaluer le coût-efficacité de l'Unité de Production Audio-Visuelle de la Commission Européenne, cette méthodologie a pour objectif de mettre en évidence les possibilités d'application dans d'autres situations caractérisées par l'absence d'un but lucratif.

La régulation publique du secteur théâtral en Belgique francophone (1981 - 1995): Développement d'un régime de contrats-programme et standardisation associée des systèmes d'informations (comptable d'activités)
Michel Jaumain

Depuis plus de 10 ans, la régulation publique du champ théâtral en Belgique francophone est organisée au moyen de conventions pluriannuelles (contrats-programme) négociées entre les théâtres et le Ministère de la Culture (Ministère de la Communauté française). La mise en place de ce dispositif a répondu à plusieurs préoccupations, notamment: sur un plan de politique culturelle, celle de clarifier et d'opérationaliser l'action et les objectifs d'activités des théâtres, au moyen de cahiers de charges négociés, justifiant l'octroi de ressources publiques à un niveau de base; sur un plan de gestion à long terme, celle de prémunir les théâtres des aléas tant politiques que de trésorerie en leur garantissant a priori des ressources publiques sur plusieurs années et liquidées selon un calendrier précis;sur un plan financier, celle de juguler les "stratégies de déficit" auxquelles les théâtres ont souvent recours pour obtenir un accroissement de leurs ressources publiques. L'expérience montre que deux conditions au moins sont nécessaires pour assurer un fonctionnement adéquat du dispositif. Une condition est de nature politique : la stabilité et la continuité des règles du jeu garanties au-delà des successions d'interlocuteurs politiques. La deuxième condition est de nature informationnelle : il s'agit que les échanges et la communication entre la tutelle et les entreprises reposent sur des instruments d'information fiables, univoques et partagés, destinés à éclairer les termes des négociations et à asseoir l'évaluation de l'exécution des cahiers de charges ou d' éventuels plans d'assainissement. C'est la raison pour laquelle les théâtres inscrits dans le système des contrats-programme ont été progressivement soumis à une normalisation informationnelle élargie, couvrant autant le domaine strictement comptable que celui de leurs activités et engagements conventionnels, normalisation qui s'est appuyée sur l'imposition ou l'élaboration progressives de définitions d'objets, notamment avec un groupe d'administrateurs de théâtre.

Le contrôle de gestion et les entreprises des domaines des arts, de la culture et des communications: Réflexions sur la littérature
Jean-Guy Rousseau, Andrée Lafortune, Lucie Bégin

Au sortir d'une période de turbulences qui aura duré près de vingt ans, les pays industrialisés constatent aujourd'hui l'ampleur et l'étendue des transformations subies. Des industries, hier florissantes, ont disparu ou ont été remplacées par d'autres, causant des réajustements structurels souvent douloureux. Les progrès technologiques et informatiques ont modifié les anciennes façons de faire et amené les entreprises à repenser leurs processus de production. De même, la venue de nouveaux concurrents sur les marchés traditionnels a été l'occasion d'une prise de conscience de la fragilité des acquis. Dans tous les secteurs, les dirigeants doivent désormais "piloter dans la tempête" [Courville, 1994] ce qui nécessite plus de flexibilité, plus de productivité et surtout, plus de créativité dans la manière d'allouer et de gérer les ressources rares de la société.
Dans les organisations, ces changements se sont traduits par une quasi-obsession pour l'efficacité et pour l'efficience, devenus les mots d'ordre des gestionnaires de tous les échelons. De plus en plus convaincus que le rendement est le meilleur garant de la survie de leurs organisations, les dirigeants ont mis en place maintes mesures pour éliminer le gaspillage, rationaliser les processus, gérer les risques, améliorer la productivité des machines comme des individus et mieux contrôler l'utilisation de toutes les ressources à tous les niveaux.

Vers une plus grande efficacité des musées d'art: le contrat d'objectifs entre le financeur et le directeur
Brigitte Godbillon, Odile Paulus

On peut observer que les musées d'art fonctionnent sur la base d'un échange entre les apporteurs de moyens financiers et les personnes disposant de compétences en gestion et en histoire de l'art. Cet échange peut être schématisé par la relation entre un financeur et un directeur du musée. Cet échange peut ou non prendre place dans le cadre d'un contrat. Nous nous proposons ici de montrer qu'entre le financeur et le directeur un contrat même imprécis vaut mieux qu'une absence de contrat. En fait, il existe un problème classique d'asymétrie d'information se décomposant en un problème de sélection adverse et de risque moral, causes d'inefficacités. Nous nous intéressons ici au risque moral qui apparaît dans les musées en raison de l'impossibilité pour le financeur du musée d'observer l'action du directeur responsable de la conduite du musée. Son action est cachée. Le directeur est tenté de se comporter dans son propre intérêt en ne réalisant que des activités satisfaisantes pour lui au détriment des actions préférables pour le financeur.
On étudie les problèmes d'inefficacité posés par le risque moral dans le cadre d'études de cas et dans le cadre d'une approche théorique avec proposition d'un modèle. L'exposé du modèle précède ici celui des études de cas. Toutefois, les études de cas ont été réalisées avant la conception du modèle et ont été à l'origine de celui-ci.
 

   GESTION DES RESSOURCES HUMAINES

The Impresario: Portrait of a Cultural Impresario
Teunis IJdens

The impresario is hard to catch in a simple definition. This entre-preneur has almost escaped the scrutiny of music- and theatre-historians who seem to be more interes-ted in the composers, authors, actors and singers who fulfil the "prima-ry" artistic roles in this field of cultural production. On the other hand, those concerned with business and entrepreneuri-al history mostly direct their attention towards entrepre-neurs-hip in other fields of industry and finance, and tend to disre-gard the art world.
This paper will sketch the emergence and development of the entrepreneuri-al role in the opera-industry, in an at-tempt to seize the evasive personality of the impresario. First, the specialisation of the entrepreneurial function in the emerging Italian opera-industry is outlined. Next, the position of the impresario in the interna-tio-nal operatic world of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century is illustra-ted in an exemplary way, using autobiograp-hies of impresarios. Finally, the issue of the supposed 'fare-well' of the impresario is raised, and a comment is given on the diachronic perspective that guided this exploratory study.

Leadership in Theatre and Music Institutions in Sweden
Maria Larson

This study aims to gain more knowledge about the situation of managers of theatrical and musical institutions. I am concerned with how these organizations work, and what specific problems are encountered when managing them. The study will describe some main problem areas in the organization of theaters and orchestras. It will also make an approach towards an analysis of the underlying processes within these organizations. Moreover, my purpose is to initiate the development of ideas about leadership methods that will prove vital in understanding managerial problems within this specific cultural sector.

Managing Small-Scale Enterprise
Janet Summerton

Much activity in the arts involves small groups of up to twenty people working in formal or informal organisations. This paper discusses the management aspects of this activity. It argues that recognition of the particular conditions of this strand of activity has implications for arts management educators, trainers, funding agencies and policy makers. The concept of growth in much small-scale activity is a move to greater stability and viability, not necessarily growth in terms of size. Adequate management and organisational structures should facilitate the operation being sustainable. Whatever shape the structures take, they provide some stability for creative efforts, a means of focusing direction and organising the activity. Because orthodox management thinking is framed by concepts of large scale organisations, we may inadvertently encourage or demand that this small scale activity develop more complicated structures and management practices than they require.

Managing Professionals in Arts Organisations: The Barcelona Symphony Orchestra
Xavier Castaner

This paper aims to explore a major problem of many cultural or arts organizations: instability in their technical (or artistic) leadership. During the last four years we have seen a wave of dismissals in orchestras, theaters, opera companies and museums throughout Spain. Both the economic and technical drawbacks of such drastic measures are evident. This paper tries to bring in management theory in an attempt to better understand the present situation and search for alternative solutions. Different theories of management, such as agency theory, human resource management and organizational sociology have been used to deal with internal conflict. In order to make our recommendations as practical as possible, our analysis will deal with a particular arts organization: the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra. Although management theories are relevant to arts organizations, their assumptions must be revised in the light of the specific characteristics of arts organizations.

The Training of Artists
Jane O'Brien

Using data from the 1991 British Census, University Statistics, figures from the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services, the Labour Force Survey and other smaller studies, this paper examines the numbers of students graduating with creative arts degrees (for the purpose of this paper this includes creative arts and performing arts) from the Higher Education sector and those training in other specialised sectors. The second part of the paper discusses the importance of training in cultural occupations, and then explores the first destinations of creative arts graduates. The third section looks at the numbers of individuals with creative arts degrees in G.B. and the major occupational groups in which they work. It also considers a broader range of qualifications held by those working in a number of selective cultural occupations and applies an age and sex analysis to those with higher degrees in creative arts subjects. The conclusion raises questions about the numbers training in creative arts subjects and their possible future impact on the arts labour market. It also highlights some of the drawbacks in using existing sources of data to follow the career paths of newly qualified artists.

Long Term Trends in Arts Employment: The Sectoral and Geographical Consequences of Change, Great Britain, 1981-1991
Andy Feist

Using data from the 1981 and 1991 Great Britain Censuses of Population, changes in the pattern and employment status of those working in the cultural sector are considered. Several key findings emerge. There has been a considerable expansion in the numbers employed in the cultural sector during the 1980s. The data suggest that in some cultural occupations, the rate of growth is much higher than that suggested by other sources which occasionally have been used to identify the rate of change of employment in the arts. The pattern of growth has been most marked among women with cultural occupations, amongst the self-employed, and within specific occupational groupings (most notably visual artists). In the concluding section, some suggestions are offered as to why the number of individuals with cultural occupations has increased so rapidly in recent years. Finally some of the wider policy implications thrown up by the data are examined.

The Artist as Economic Unit
Joan Jeffri

In 1994, Joan Jeffri and Robert Greenblatt completed a trend report on artists in the visual arts category of the U.S. census for painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist printmakers, which examined areas of employment, earnings and geographic distribution from 1970-1990. Comparisons were made among the experienced civilian labour force, professional specialty occupations, all artists, and the specific census category: painters, sculptors, craft artists and artist printmakers. For this report, the focus is on the categories of education and income.
In addition and in comparison to U.S. census data, discrete surveys of artists were used from the Research Center for Arts and Culture studies done during the last decade, a study commissioned by the New England Foundation for the Arts in the early 1980s, and an Australian study of artists done by cultural economist David Throsby in the late 1980s. These were contextualized further with the work of several sociologists and psychologists pointing to a central problem in identifying, acknowledging and making policy for the public support of artists: that their main source of income frequently is not the same as their main occupation, according to the artists themselves.
Therefore, current measures of artists as economic units do not necessarily represent the importance of economic success to their being artists, nor the full range of experiences these individuals have AS ARTISTS -- e.g. there is no provision in the census for recognising artists with more than one job, or artists who work in more than one art form. In an age of multi-media as well as multiple careers, such measurements seem short-sighted and confusing.
In all the discrete surveys, much more targeted information about artists is available, from the range of income earned to perhaps our most important finding: that artists receive a high degree of formal education, a fact represented very differently in the U.S. census and, in the case of international comparisons, in Australia.
Although these findings may be interesting in and of themselves, a more relevant use of them for practitioners is a discussion of the implications of such findings in the area of cultural policy for artists. For example, when looking at the plethora of formal MFA and BFA programs in the U.S., the high level of education, and Research Center statistics that show in some cities, approximately 62 per cent of the artists trained there remain there to live, a private foundation with an interest in keeping artists in a geographic region might consider investing in local artist training programs. In addition, the geographic trends of U.S. artists point directly to a 10 per cent decrease in urban dwellers, with the highest proportion of male artists in 1990 in the West, the highest proportion of female artists in the South, something that perhaps such a foundation might want to consider for its investment of funds.
For advocacy purposes, it might be useful to know that female visual artists (in the census category described here) have a higher median income than the general labour force and therefore, are economic contributors to society.

New Forms of Professionality in the Cultural Sector
Ed Carroll

This paper examines the capacity of arts education and training systems to respond to changing educational and training needs and aspirations and, at the same time, to changing economic demand for skills and skill profiles in the cultural sector. The interface between arts education and the arts economy will be described in terms of a "pedagogy of labour". It will be proposed that the capacity for working in the sector, i.e. for sharing efficiently in the modern production process, demands greater and greater participation and, before all else, proper education/training. David Puttnam recently noted the comparison that it was approximately 18 million who died in the Great Wars and it is almost 18 million who are now unemployed in the EU. The cultural economy has a responsibility to impact on the unemployed crisis.
The paper is driven by a belief in the primacy of the artist as creator over art/product. The artist as creator has the potential to transform the meaning of work. The mode of production is at all times the artist not the product. Current models of response are critiqued, in particular the National Vocational systems of Ireland, England Wales and Scotland. A glance at current OECD material on the knowledge training dichotomy raises important considerations regarding the meaning of learning; the need for integration of academic and vocational education and training. This material will enable us to understand just how problematic education is in our society, i.e. the extent to which it is implicated in the functioning of the economy

Management of Change in Art Education in South East Asia
Brother Joseph McNally

One of the most dynamic contemporary world cultures is to be found in South East Asia. I refer particularly to those areas, largely insular and peninsular, inhabited by what may generically be called the Malaysian race. It includes inhabitants of Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. In particular, I will focus on Singapore, which has tended to unify the grafting of the several cultures mentioned above with exotic ones such as those of India, China and Europe.
Earlier changes in the culture and educational systems were not "managed" in the contemporary sense but were rather historical growths induced by various colonial systems operating in the region. I refer to the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British, French and American colonialisms. These influenced the cultures of all of the above countries with the exception of Thailand. For a while they suffered culturally but have recovered somewhat since the endings of the colonial period.
Singapore presents a unique scenario different from the other countries of the region. For one thing it has fostered an almost total immigrant population, whereas the others have always had a native dominant culture with more or less admixtures of others. After colonialism, it had four languages, in theory equal, but in practice with English more equal than Malay, Tamil or even Mandarin, which is the language of the majority Chinese. The management of change in cultural policies and education can be said to date from 1965.
At first, the newly independent country had to provide for housing, sewerage, roads, viable industries, a clean environment and general infrastructures. With what it considered enough on its plate, government did not give much attention to the visual and performing arts. It did, however, set up a national type art gallery in 1975 and a symphony orchestra in 1979. Art education at the primary and secondary levels was an ongoing process. These are concrete evidences of official Arts Management.
However, art at the tertiary level had a somewhat sad history in that it was left purely to the private sector to develop institutions. The private sector is always short of financial resources. The only two institutions involved in teaching were Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA) and LASALLE-SIA College of the Arts. The latter, which I head, has set itself the mission of being a South East Asian Contemporary College of all the arts. It seeks to bring together the traditional motifs in the arts of surrounding countries as well as those of India and China with technology transfer from the West. Most important from the point of view of this Assembly, it has begun to teach formal courses in Arts management such as will direct, in time, the arts industries of Singapore and surrounding countries.

Assessing the Role of Formal Education in Arts Management Training
Dan J Martin, J. Dennis Rich

This paper has two primary goals: First, the authors will assess the perception of formal arts management training among those individuals currently serving in top management positions in professional performing arts organisations in the United States; and second, the study will report skills critical to successful management of these organisations as perceived by practising professional managers. Arts Management is becoming an increasingly international field. The current American experience should be of interest to managers, researchers in emerging, evolving and established free-market economies around the world.
Methodology: Beginning with the membership lists of Theatre Communications Group, the American Symphony Orchestra League, Dance USA, Opera America, and the Association of Performing Arts Presenters, a stratified sample of professional performing arts organisations -- symphony orchestras, theatre companies, dance companies and presenting organisations -- will be generated. The survey will be fielded to top management personnel and will assess the perceived training needs of these managers and their organisations. Analysis will include critical skills ratings, the current role of formal arts management training in the hiring process, and the degree to which training must occur "on the job" as opposed to in the classroom. In addition, this survey will ask managers to identify key issues and challenges facing their fields and suggest ways in which formal training might help address these challenges. While the authors at this time assume there will be trends across the various arts disciplines, they also will report findings unique to individual disciplines.

Professional Arts Managers: New Directions for Lifelong Learning
Anne W. Smith

Dan Martin and Dennis Rich have provided an overview of of current (1994-95) professional American arts managers' perceptions concerning successful management skills and the relationship of those skills to the role of formal arts management training offered by art administration programs in higher education. This paper proposes a model for continuing education and development of leadership skills among excutive arts administrators, called Strategies for Success, that results (1) from a review of non-degree training and professional development options offered by service organizations for arts managers, and (2) data gathered from interviews with arts managers from a sampling of public and private sector arts groups in the San Francisco bay area. Theoretical influences for establishing Strategies for Success come from James McGregor Burns views on leadership, and social science and management theorists including Mary Parker Follett, Philip Selznick, Herbert Simon Hugh Heclo,Reine Eisler, David Easton,Peter Senge and Robert Reich (presently Secretary of Labor in the Clinton administration). Acknowledgement must be made of the input from the adjunct faculty in Arts Administration at Golden Gate University,Herb Felsenfeld in particular. The model could not have been developed without the consultation, philosophical and funding support leveraged by John Kreidler, the Arts Program Executive of the San Francisco Foundation. 
 

   POLITIQUES CULTURELLES
 
The National Lottery: Planning for the Arts
Graeme Evans

This paper assesses the introduction and likely impact of the National Lottery on cultural provision in the United Kingdom. A commissioned study of proposed capital projects and events looking to Millennium and other Lottery funds in London, and comparatives elsewhere, is the starting point for a critique of provision and funding between the arts and sport and the absence of policy and planning consideration in the Lottery grant proces-s and of arts planning norms.
The reassertion of a hegemonic subsidy system is also analysed in terms of the divergence of socio-economic participation in the arts and heritage-based activity, in contrast to the likely purchasers of National Lottery tickets. The evidence gathered indicates that the beneficiaries of Lottery proceeds will be concentrated in London and regional capitals; in major flagship projects and in the arts and heritage organisations whose participants are predominantly drawn from higher socio-economic groups. The paper concludes that a golden opportunity to democratise the Lottery distribution process and the fulfilment of long-laid leisure plans appears to have been lost under the current Lottery legis-lative and agency structures.

Are Lotteries the Solution to the Funding Challenges Which Face Arts Organisations in Britain and America?
Sarah Frankland, Valerie Morris

Les organisations d'art à travers le monde font face à de nombreux défis dans l'obtention de financements adéquats. En 1994, les organisations d'art américaines et britanniques ont vu lerus budgets coupés, avec une réduction de 3.5 millions de livres des fonds des Conseils d'Art Britannique (British Arts Councils -- BAC) et de 2.5 pour cent du budget du Fonds Américain pour les Arts (National Endowment for the Arts -- NEA). Le succès du parti républicain en Amérique, qui a obtenu la majorité à la Chambre des Représentants, a trouvé un écho dans un appel pour la privatisation de la NEA. Ainsi, les situations de financement des les arts en Amérique et au Royaume-Uni ne sont dans aucune mesure assurées. Les lotteries nationales et d'états ont souvent été perçues par de nombreux politiciens comme une réponse au problème de financement des arts. La création d'une Lotterie Nationale en Grande-Bretagne le 19 novembre 1994 a été promue comme ouvrant potentiellement une nouvelle phase dans le financement des arts en Grande-Bretagne. Il a été décidé par voie législative que la Lotterie Nationale doit donner près d'un tiers de ses profits aux arts, sports et charités en Grande-Bretagne. En Amérique, les lotteries d'états existent depuis plus de trente ans et ont été introduites avec l'objectif de bénéficier à des bonnes causes désignées.

Risks and Benefits of Decentralisation: The Development of Local Cultural Administration in Norway
Per Mangset

Cet article décrit la décentralisation du pouvoir de décision et le développement des administrations culturelles locales en Norvège pendant les derniers 20 ans. On discute ce processus en relation avec la professionnalisation parallèle des mêmes administrations. Dernièrement (après 1986), cependant, le processus de décentralisation politique et administrative paraît aboutir à une des-intégration. Cela signifie que la structure assez solide d'administrations culturelles locales (et régionales) risque de disparaître ou d'être totalement modifiée.
La base empirique de cet article est surtout trois enquêtes nationales des directeurs des administrations culturelles municipales (1980, 93 et 94). L'article décrit le développement des administrations culturelles. Après on discute s'il se passe un mouvement de professionnalisation véritable, c.à.d. si des gens qui ont une formation professionnelle longue et spécialisée ont tendance à monopoliser les postes "d'administrateur culturel". La réponse préliminaire est: "pas encore". Il paraît, cependant, qu'un changement de générations est en marche. La vieille génération d'administrateurs culturels était souvent des hommes locaux avec une formation d'instituteur. Il paraît maintenant qu'ils seront remplacés par de jeunes nouveaux-venus avec une formation d'administrateur culturel plus professionnalisée.
Finalement l'article discute des instruments possibles d'intervention de l'état dans le secteur culturel régional et local, comme une nouvelle loi pour la culture, un financement sélectif, et de la recherche/évaluation. L'état pourrait aussi encourager une professionnalisation accélérée pour promouvoir une politique culturelle nationale au niveau local et régional, mais il est réticent à utiliser cet instrument. En réalité un mouvement de professionnalisation assez fort est quand même en marche. Il reste maintenant à savoir si le processus de réorganisation locale actuel sera contrebalancé par le processus de professionnalisation. 

Creative Nation: A Policy for Leaders or Followers. An Evaluation of Australia's 1994 Cultural Policy
Jennifer Radbourne

En octobre 1994, le Premier Ministre australien a lancé un document exposant la nouvelle politique culturelle dans lequel il déclare:
"Il n'y a probablement pas de meilleur moment que le présent pour revoir notre politique culturelle nationale... A tous les niveaux de la société, des australiens sont engagés dans des activités culturelles qui aident à réinventer l'identité nationale et la plupart des australiens sont d'accord sur la nécessité de mettre en valeur et d'enrichir notre culture. Pour atteindre ce but, la politique culturelle doit entrer dans le courant principal de la politique fédérale." (Créative Nation, p.1)
La politique culturelle a toujours été influencée par d'autres activités gouvernementales, mais cette fois nous devons nous poser la question suivante: quel est le rapport entre l'élévation de la politique culturelle dans la hiérarchie politique avec les stratégies économiques en Asie? Le commerce, les affaires, le tourisme et l'éducation sont des éléments clé pour l'Australie sur le marché asiatique, qui est en pleine croissance. L'activité culturelle est un élément clé dans la vie de tous les jours et dans la pratique des affaires dans les pays asiatiques. Le placement du porte-feuille des Arts et de la Culture au niveau de ministère par le gouvernement australien aura des implications politiques pour les trois niveaux de gouvernement (fédéral, état/territoire et local) ainsi que pour toutes les organisations artistiques en Australie.
Créative Nation montre clairement un changement de la politique culturelle au niveau fédéral, des variables de l'offre aux variables de la demande, une diminution de subventions pour le développement de l'art en faveur de subventions pour développer le marché consommateur d'art et des stratégies de marketing.
Une politique a des portées profondes sur la société. Une politique détermine les priorités dans les subventions à accorder. Une politique détermine les stratégies d'action. La politique artistique actuelle favorise le développement de l'art aborigène, une Australie multiculturelle, le multimédia et la technologie, le tourisme culturel, le marketing international stratégique et l'esprit d'entreprise.
La connexion entre une politique et les subventions donne à conclure que les subventions seront accordées par l'Etat Fédéral aux organisations artistiques et culturelles qui adopteront un ou tous les aspects de la nouvelle politique culturelle. Cela pourrait, par conséquent déterminer le choix du produit artistique développé par une organisation, le style de management, les prises de décision, le personnel, la structure de l'organisation et des nouveaux marchés.
Est-ce alors une politique qui s'adresse à des leaders ou à des serviteurs? Il est possible que Créative Nation ne réussisse pas si la communauté artistique se complaît dans la position de demandeur de subventions. Au contraire, les serviteurs doivent plaidoyer leur cause, aller de l'avant et mettre en cause le Gouvernement pour qu'il traduise la politique culturelle en des stratégies d'action. Le but de cet exposé est d'évaluer la politique culturelle de Créative Nation par rapport à la politique économique, sociale et culturelle, ainsi que de déterminer comment cette politique influencera les modes de subventions, les méthodes de management dans les organisations artistiques et les études de marché pour développer le marché consommateur d'art.

The Changing Model of Irish Cultural Policy
Anne Kelly

In 1992, the Irish government made a fundamental change in its cultural policy provision and appointed the first Minister with full cabinet responsibility for the cultural field. This change brought to power a socialist minister, with strong views on cultural theory and practice, at a critical time in Irish history. Although Ireland became an independent state in 1992, many of its institutions were modelled on the British. The previous model of funding contemporary culture had been strongly influenced by the British experience through the establishment of an Arts Council in 1951. Since joining the EEC in 1973, the Irish have been enthusiastic Europeans and EU programmes have had a profound effect on cultural development, in particular through the Structural Funds. Now, the combination of a socialist partnership in government and the availability of considerable capital funding for cultural projects has brought about a change in direction which is likely to have lasting effects on the Irish cultural landscape.
This paper analyses these changes as they affect the role of the Arts Council, the national cultural institutions, the development of the film industry and the emergence of "instrumental" cultural policies in areas, such as urban regeneration and cultural tourism. The use of cultural ventures and investments as a means to obtain goals in areas other than the cultural is a growing phenomenon in Ireland as elsewhere in Europe. These policies generally involve partnerships between the public and private sectors. New alliances between the arts, public administration and private financial interests are emerging both in Europe and in the USA, where such partnerships are involved in revitalising inner cities, stimulating economic growth and supporting the arts. Ireland is no exception to this trend, which is changing the face of cultural provision and raising the questions, for example, regarding future revenue funding of capital ventures, whether they are increasing access to the arts, and how artists are responding to the new environment.

The Financing of the Arts in Austria
Monika Mokre

The most striking feature of arts policy in Austria is the extraordinarily close relation between policy and the arts. Of course, there many problems exist because of the tight relationship between policy and the arts. Both partners have their own interests which do not necessarily correspond. Inefficiency arises out of these differing aims and unclear goals of cultural policy are favourable for corruption. Furthermore, the public administration is not a very flexible body, its measures lag behind the real needs of the arts and the artists.
The structure of arts-financing in Austria is illustrated by the example of theatres in Vienna, which have been examined in a study during the last years. In summary, this analysis shows that the structures of Viennese theatre financing do not encourage economising.
· Large theatres: Federal theatres are the largest and most expensive theatre enterprise of the world and their economic structure is such that they cannot improve their situation by reducing expenses or increasing income. In the other large theatres the conditions are slightly more favourable to an economic management, as they are companies according to civil law that are allotted a specific amount of money and must manage on it. But only one large theatre's financial structure offers a clear motivation to economise.
Medium-sized theatres: The sector of medium-sized theatres is the only one in Austrian theatre financing where cultural policy tries to combine economic and artistic criteria. In general, the sums allotted to these theatres are so small that economic management is nearly impossible.
Independent projects: Lot of time and energy are invested in the selection of projects that get a relatively small amount of money. At the same time, it lacks a basis infrastructure for the independent projects.
Options to improve the economic situation of all these types theatres and of the distribution of subsidies in Vienna are presented in the full paper. These suggestions have in common that they try to induce the "arms-length principle" in Austrian cultural policy, which either introduces intermediate institutions or persons relating policy and the arts or more autonomy for theatres.

Some Aspects of Cultural Policy in Austria ... As an Important Measure of Cultural Democratisation
Michael Wimmer

Du rapport entretenu avec la culture dans une société démocratique ou de la politique culturelle en tant que défi permanent pour la democratisation
Cette intervention donne un apereu des conditions générales de la politique culturelle autrichienne du point de vue politologique. Un bref historlque décrit les quatre phases successives de la politique culturelle autrichienne menée au cours des cinquantes années de l'histoire de la 2ème République.
La politique culturelle en tant que Renaissance autrichienne. Exploitation d'un riche patrimoine culturel permettant de donner une identité à la 2ème République, fondée sur les ruines du régime national-socialiste. Prédominance d'une conception élitaire et intellectuelle de la culture qui, dans une atmosphere de lutte contre l'ultramontanisme, et par tous les moyens de l'anticommunisme, de l'antiaméricanisme et de l'antisémitisme, s'oppose au développement d'un nouveau milieu artistique, critique face à la société.
La politique culturelle en tant que l'expression de paternalisme. Installée au gouvernement depuis 1970, la social-démocratie use de la politique culturelle pour véhiculer et imposer un projet de réforme globale: "La politique culturelle en continuation de la politique sociale". Une "conception é1argie de la culture" accompagne les réformes effectuées dans les domaines de la politique de la famine, de la justice et de 1'éducation. L'Etat accorde des subventions à de jeunes artistes àA l'esprit parfois critique. Les buts concrets de la politique culturelle sont de parvenir à une plus grande transparence en ce qui concerne l'attribution de subventions, la democratisation de la prise de décisions ainsi que l'obectivation de la façon d'envisager la culture. On décide d'établir un "catalogue de mesures à appliquer en matière de politique culturelle".
Emancipation de l'art face au paternalisme de 1'Etat. "Plus de privé, moins d'Etat". Importance accrue accordée aux paramètres économiques concernant la gestion des institutions culturelles, mise en place de filières de formation au management culturel, "festivalisation" de la politique culturelle, initiatives culturelles régionales, nomination de conservateurs chargés de la restructuration de la promotion artistique.
Nouvelle liberté ou lutte séculaire contre l'ultramontanisme. Augmentation des phénomènes de crise économique, nouvelles formes de polarisations sociales, menace d'apparition d'une politique culturelle libérale, développement d'une aile à forte tendance nationalists et populiste de droite, contre 1'évolution d'une société autrichienne multiculturelle, contre la promotion de l'art contemporain au profit de l'ordre et de la loi dans le cadre du maintien d'un patrimoine culturel harmonieux. Nécessité d'internationaliser la, ou les politiques culturelles. La politique des médias en tant que politique culturelle. Une conception é1argie et ouverte de l'art: definition de nouvelles priorités dans le domaine de la médiation artistique (personnelle).

In Search of a Cogent Cultural Policy: US/Japan Cultural Study
Michihiro Watanabe

The US/Japan Comparative Cultural Policy Study, conducted by UCLA Center for Arts and Entertainment Management and several institutions in Japan including Showa University of Music, revealed that, in spite of their difference in social and political backgrounds, there are more common features between the cultural policies of the two countries then there are differences, and they are taking developments different from the more orthodox cultural policy models like those of European countries. Some of the common issues among the US/Japan cultural policies are the following:
Both countries have demonstrated a very cautious and hesitant approach in introducing public cultural policy, although these have been an increasing pressure for more active public involvemen in cultural affairs.
What culture means for policy purposes remains ambiguous as it differs greatly among the two countries and the only way to understand them in full is by grasping the whole dimension of public interest in the field of culture.
Democratisation of the content of arts and of the values they carry and promotion of people at large to participate in creative activities themselves, has not yet been achieved in both countries.
Currently, the American and Japanese cultural policies are concerned more with art policy, that is the promotion of the arts in general, than artists policy, direct improvement of artist's economic and social conditions.
Both countries accept and encourage cultural diversity and interaction and readily adopt the resulting hybrid cultures as their own culture.
Funding systems in both countries are taking a similar course of development toward diversification -- a dynamic mix of earned income and contributions from public and private sources.
Although there is a real need to develop a more coherent economic study of culture, cultural industries in both countries seem to be developing into one of the largest industries.
Media has provided us with more opportunities to enhance culture. Control of the flow of information by few is a real danger.
Training of artists and arts education to young people should be further expanded and strengthened.
In addition to the above issues, there is much work to be carried out concerning the rationale for public support of culture and political dimension of culture.

An Arts Policy in Practice
Simon Olding

The paper will consider the detailed policy and implementation issues concerning the consultation, creation and delivery of the Bournemouth Arts Plan.
The Arts Plan, a policy tool of Bournemouth Borough Council, was the Council's first-ever strategic arts policy, and it has provided the bedrock for the Council's political thinking about delivering and enabling the delivery of, the arts since 1992.
The paper will question, in detail, the impact of the policy, and review recent developments in arts planning across the Bournemouth region, which have led to tensions and opportunities in arts management.
Consultancy work of the Bournemouth International Festival, the long and complex project to refurbish and develop the Winter Gardens (an 1800-seat concert hall), the issues of provision, programming and performance in a conurbation with three District Councils, together with very recent developments leading to a joint Strategic Review between Bournemouth and Poole Councils, have all raised serious questions about the value of arts planning and the genuine influence of the policy process. These impacts (for example, the recent acceptance and implementation of the Dorset Arts Strategy) will be monitored, reviewed and frankly assessed in the paper.
Is policy a hindrance to practice? Are politicians committed to arts policies or are officer-driven reports contradictory to the development of arts practice? Is there a genuine philosophy for the arts that can be enshrined for local government departments and enacted by them, or are Councils simply subscribing to a consultant's charter?
These issues will be looked at in detail and pragmatically against the existing structure of all arts policies in Bournemouth and the region.

La politique fiscale de stimulation à la culture au Brésil: L'analyse d'une expérience
José Carlos Durand, Maria Alice de Gouveia Graça Berman

Résumé non disponible.

Democracy and the State Opera House
Ruth Bereson

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that governments treat state opera houses as monumental constructs which serve to legitimise, through the use of ceremony and ritual, the power of the state. This function, which opera houses have performed since their beginnings in the ducal palaces of Italy in the 16th century, has been adopted by, and translated into, the terminology of the modern State. This terminology focuses on the concepts of accessibility and democratisation.
It is the contention of this paper, however, that opera houses are useful to the State and supported by it, for purposes quite other than cultural. The reasons given for support of such institutions by funding bodies are thus deliberately deceptive. This paradox between language and motivation will be demonstrated through compounded example based on an analysis of the similarity of language used and philosophy expounded, by the States under examination. It will demonstrate that the new so-called democratised opera houses built for left-wing or socialist regimes are in no way dissimilar in form or function, to the opera houses of the 18th or 19th centuries.
The conclusion and implications of such an argument are that there exists a central flaw in the basis for funding such institutions. Inherently they are supported for supra-artistic or cultural reasons and therefore should be excluded from the general cultural budget, yet they are often the flagship of cultural and artistic state symbolism. Such a thesis has ramifications on the future of cultural policy with regard to Opera.
This paper is based on five years investigative research into the relationship between governments and operatic institutions. This research is based on analysis of the language used by governments about opera and compared to examples of the ways in which they have maintained patronage and subvention. Examples will be drawn from both the French and English languages.

Art at the Heart: A Case Study of Arts Management Issues and Models in the Development of Cultural Democracy
Donna-Lee Iffla, Maurice Maguire, Phil Stevens

This paper builds on our current research on the Estover Percussion Project, a community arts project initiated in 1991 at Estover Community College in Plymouth. The project began with the aim of involving teenagers from a local housing estate in participatory music activity (the formation of a steel band), and is now comprised of Real Steel (all female band), Weapons of Sound (youth junk funk orchestra), Metal Fatigue (adult junk funk), Jam Samba (mixed ages street band), Echoes (junior a capella), and emerging music groups for adults with learning difficulties. There is an annual Street Rhythms Festival to showcase groups within the project and to encourage new involvement. Some of the groups design, make and decorate their own instruments, resulting in a strong visual impact on stage and in performance. There is a current focus on developing dance and movement work within the overall project as well as learning or transferring organisational and management skills.
Our paper uses the development and evolution of the Estover Percussion Project as a focus for addressing the following issues and debates: developing cultural democracy from an institution-based model for community arts/community music (to include power sharing, decision making processes, legal structures, staff training);identifying and managing emergent cultural forms (to include aspects of youth culture, interdisciplinary, grounded aesthetics).
Defining and debating management, artistic and educational/institutional values and standards underpin the discussion of all of the above issues as does the assumption that creative activity should be at the heart of all our debates.

Participation of the Community in the Preservation of an Historic and Artistic Patrimony of a Small Brazilian Town
Jose-Maria Arruda

In 1994, we carried out a research in Mariana, a small Brazilian town that has today 38,000 inhabitants and a historic and artistic patrimony of unquestionable value. It is officially registered by the National Institute of Historic and Artistic Patrimony for its protection and preservation, with innumerable monuments being preserved, and having whole streets that remain from the 18th and the 19th centuries.
In this research, we interviewed technicians who worked for public agencies of preservation, local leaders, high-school and university teachers, and members of the local community.
We verified the lack of integration between the efforts of preservation, which disperses the use of resources that are already insufficient. We also verified the absense of participation of the community.

Un autre modèle de gestion des opéras: Le système russe
France Guillemonat

La Russie soviétique a toujours consacré des moyens importants à la culture, et, notamment aux maisons d'opéra qui étaient le symbole d'une politique culturelle de haut niveau. En cette période de transformation de l'économie russe, il est particulièrement intéressant de voir comment ces institutions s'organisent pour affronter l'économie de marché et quelle est la position des pouvoirs publics en ce qui concerne leur statut à venir. En effet, les interrogations qui sont les leurs aujourd'hui ne sont pas foncièrement différentes de celles qu'ont les opéras occidentaux. C'est pourquoi leur réflexion peut nourrir la nôtre.
Dans une première partie, cette étude analyse le fonctionnement des maisons d'opéra. Par tradition, les opéras russes fonctionnent selon le système du répertoire. Ils disposent encore de moyens importants, surtout en personnel. Si la qualité des productions est médiocre, en revanche, l'ofre de spectacle est diversifiée et la demande encore très forte. Le rythme de travail du personnel est souvent plus soutenu que dans les institutions occidentales et le travail en commun permet de conserver un esprit d'équipe qui tend à disparaître dans le système de production de nos maisons d'opéra.
La deuxième partie est consacrée à l'étude des rapports entre les pouvoirs publics et les théâtres d'opéra. Contrairement à ce qui est parfois affirmé, l'Etat soutient fortement les maisons d'opéra et assume l'essentiel de leur budget. Les collectivités territoriales sont également très investies dans le théâtre lyrique qui est considéré comme la pièce maîtresse du dispositif culturel d'une ville. Toutefois, ces politiques ne font pas l'objet d'une véritable analyse et les pouvoirs publics eux-mêmes sont incapables de discerner la part qu'ils consacrent aux théâtres d'opéra. D'une façon indirecte, les pouvoirs publics aident les théâtres lyriques en leur consentant des avantages sur le plan fiscal. Ces avantages sont très supérieurs à ceux qu'ont pu obtenir les théâtres occidentaux.
La troisième et dernière partie essaye de mesurer l'évolution des opéras vers l'économie de marché. Les théâtres russes ont relativement peu de ressources propres et n'ont pas encore optimisé leur gestion. Les recettes de billetterie sont modestes, compte-tenu du faible prix des places. D'une façon générale, l'opéra est conçu comme un spectacle populaire et les administrateurs restent prudents dans les augmentations de prix. Contrairement à ce que l'on pourrait penser, le mécénat est important. Il s'agit d'un mécénat national pratiqué surtout par les banques. Le mécénat étranger est quasiment négligeable.
Enfin, et malgré des partenariat avec les industries internationales de l'audiovisuel, la vente de produits dérivés reste faible et on note sur ce point un certain manque d'imagination. Ce qui reste particulièrement intéressant dans l'évolution des maisons d'opéra en Russie, est la qualité de la réflexion menée tant par les pouvoirs publics que par le responsables d'opéra. Le souci de préserver les théâtres des dangers de l'économie de marché et de préserver leur rôle culturel demeure très présent.

New Orientations in Cultural Strategies in Central & Oriental Europe: The Case of Russia, Bulgaria and Hungary - Book Edition and Market
Svetla Moussakova

En Europe de l'Est, sous les régimes communistes, la littérature et le marché des livres ont joué un rôle traditionnellement important dans la vie publique. Depuis 1989, les enjeux économiques, scientifiques, esthétiques prennent une nouvelle place dans l'intégralité du domaine éditorial. On peut donc parler d'autonomisation du champ culturel et il convient précisément de démontrer et d'analyser les orientations les plus caractéristiques des nouvelles stratégies culturelles, et notamment celles qui représentent une nouvelle relation entre le monde de l'édition et l'espace politique d'une part, et de la vie économique d'autre part. L'interaction, latente ou manifeste, entre les différents éléments de cet univers -- mécénat, politique éditoriale, mode de financement, évolue davantage dans les années postérieures à la chute du Mur de Berlin, mais reste toutefois encrée dans la logique des ruptures et des continuités des stratégies culturelles, propre à la situation antérieure. Le choix de trois pays -- la Russie, la Hongrie et la Bulgarie dont l'histoire culturelle est différente, nous permet de dégager les principes communs des nouvelles stratégies culturelles ainsi que d'analyser dans une perspective comparative les spécificités de chaque situation nationale.
L'étude du monde éditorial analyse les nouveaux principes de fonctionnement du secteur éditorial à travers l'expérience de trois maison d'édition: Hémus (Bulgarie), Terra (Russie) et Akadémiai Kiadó (Hongrie): a) le mode de création des maisons d'édition: privatisation, semi-privatisation, création nouvelle, adjonction à une entreprise commerciale non-culturelle d'une branche éditoriale, l'installation d'une filiale d'une maison occidentale, etc; b) le mode de financement reste similaire en général: le système du subventionnement à travers les différentes politiques culturelles des Etats, les programmes des pays occidentaux à l'égard de l'Est, l'impact des fondations privées et semi-privées; c) l'analyse d'un troisième principe concernant les politiques éditoriales donne la priorité à la tradition culturelle nationale: nous pouvons constater l'existence d'un équilibre fragile entre la politique nationale du livre et la concurrence d'une politique inspirée par les modèles étrangers. A travers cette tendance nous pouvons observer la présence d'une nouvelle orientation, qui pourrait aboutir à une nouvelle hiérarchie des valeurs culturelles. Malgré les programmes éditoriaux encore très éclectiques, celle-ci marque le début d'une nouvelle étape, qui, dépassant la soif des romans "roses" et "noirs", prête une attention particulière à la tradition littéraire et spirituelle.

Art Management in the Museum of Applied Arts in Belgrade
Milica Cukic

During the last few years, the whole Yugoslavian society has been seized by radical changes which mark the transition from a one party system to a politically pluralistic society, but which has, in a large measure, kept the characteristics of the previous system, primarily in its way of thinking and decision-making, in political as well as in cultural life. Culture and cultural strategy in Yugoslavian society are still deeply dependent on the old models of cultural policies and organisations of cultural institutions.
The characteristics of the transitional period in culture are dramatic, because with the cessation of government censorship it appears that government care has come to a grinding halt. In order to survive, cultural institutions are referred to the market, which as such still does not exist, and to sponsor's help, whose interest is not evident nor stimulated, so that it all depends on personal connections.
When looking at cultural management, not all activities in art and culture are open towards a market exchange model in the same way. Museums in our country belong to the least profit oriented group of cultural institutions. Their products either never end up on the market or they are rarely able to charge for their services. Using the Museum of Applied Arts as an example, we can comprehend the state of the cultural institutions in Yugoslavia. The Museum's basic funds are provided by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Serbia, and they barely cover material expense and employee wages, leaving very little for programmes. There are a variety of reasons why the Museum of Applied Arts should look for ways out of the crisis in a more active relation with the market and private beneficiaries. In Yugoslavia, even in previous periods, the relation between the public that frequents museums was proportionately lower than visits to the cinemas or theatres in comparison to other countries. Now, in the midst of economic sanctions, major crisis and a sudden impoverishment of the largest part of the population, the public is even more scarce.
Therefore, the role of electronic media is of special interest, especially taking into account their expansion in the last few years - instead of the previous three channels of state television, Belgrade viewers can now tune into eleven TV programmes and around fifty radio stations. Most of them are privately owned, with, at times, horrendously low quality programmes, but positive examples stand out such as the ART TV channel, which exclusively deals with art and culture. For that reason, the main problem has ceased to be to, regardless of the price, fight for media exposure, and is now a question of making a selection and planning the dynamics of media appearance, in order to maintain the positive image of the Museum.
The public relations department must, therefore, keep a constant two-way conversation open with all relevant target groups, amongst which sponsors and donators hold a special place. The main sponsors of the Museum used to be the large government owned companies whose dealings are doing worse than ever, so that in the last couple of years money has passed, to the other side and is now in the hands of larger or smaller privately owned enterprises and their owners. As such they have qualified themselves as potential sponsors, but at the same time, this has opened up a number of new questions and dilemmas: how to stimulate and attract sponsors; how to give them sufficient exposure without endangering the artistic level of the programmes and the Museum's total image?
The government should have a priority of including management in its social conscience, which would enable them to form a suitable system for constructive action in order to avoid the anomalies which have arisen as a result of the collapse of the recent system of living and managing. The application of management is the most efficient way to change a subsidised institution such as a museum, into an organisation which is self financed and therefore capable of surviving on the free market.